consensus theory of employability

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Smart, S., Hutchings, M., Maylor, U., Mendick, H. and Menter, I. The expansion of HE and changing economic demands is seen to engender new forms of social conflict and class-related tensions in the pursuit for rewarding and well-paid employment. Similar to the Bowman et al. Purists, believing that their employability is largely constitutive of their meritocratic achievements, still largely equate their employability with traditional hard currencies, and are therefore not so adept at responding to signals from employers. Well-developed and well-executed employability provisions may not necessarily equate with graduates actual labour market experiences and outcomes. Becker, G. (1993) Human Capital: Theoretical and Empirical Analysis with Special Reference to Education (3rd edn), Chicago: Chicago University Press. (2003) Class Strategies and the Education Market: The Middle Classes and Social Advantage, London: Routledge. Despite the limitations, the model is adopted to evaluate the role of education stakeholders in the Nigerian HE. How employable a graduate is, or perceives themselves to be, is derived largely from their self-perception of themselves as a future employee and the types of work-related dispositions they are developing. Savage, M. (2003) A new class paradigm? British Journal of Sociology of Education 24 (4): 535541. Nabi, G., Holden, R. and Walmsley, A. Overall, consensus theory is a useful perspective for understanding the role of crime in society and the ways in which it serves as a means of defining and enforcing social norms and values. This may be largely due to the fact that employers have been reasonably responsive to generic academic profiles, providing that graduates fulfil various other technical and job-specific demands. Value consensus assumes that the norms and values of society are generally agreed and that social life is based on co-operation rather than conflict. Keynes' theory of employment is a demand-deficient theory. The research by Archer et al. This is perhaps further reflected in the degree of qualification-based and skills mismatches, often referred to as vertical mismatches. The consensus theory of employment argues that technological innovation is the driving force of social change (Drucker, 1993, Kerr, 1973). Greenbank, P. (2007) Higher education and the graduate labour market: The Class Factor, Tertiary Education and Management 13 (4): 365376. For graduates, the process of realising labour market goals, of becoming a legitimate and valued employee, is a continual negotiation and involves continual identity work. This has been driven mainly by a number of key structural changes both to higher education institutions (HEIs) and in the nature of the economy. Relatively high levels of personal investment are required to enhance one's employment profile and credentials, and to ensure that a return is made on one's investment in study. (2011) The Global Auction: The Broken Promises of Education, Jobs and Incomes, Oxford: Oxford University Press. Indeed, there appears a need for further research on the overall management of graduate careers over the longer-term course of their careers. consensus and industrial peace. HE has traditionally helped regulate the flow of skilled, professional and managerial workers. Both policymakers and employers have looked to exert a stronger influence on the HE agenda, particularly around its formal provisions, in order to ensure that graduates leaving HE are fit-for-purpose (Teichler, 1999, 2007; Harvey, 2000). %PDF-1.7 Compelling evidence on employers approaches to managing graduate talent (Brown and Hesketh, 2004) exposes this situation quite starkly. European-wide secondary data also confirms such patterns, as reflected in variable cross-national graduate returns (Eurostat, 2009). Morley ( 2001 ) nevertheless states that . Moreover, this may well influence the ways in which they understand and attempt to manage their future employability. At another level, changes in the HE and labour market relationship map on to wider debates on the changing nature of employment more generally, and the effects this may have on the highly qualified. Under consensus theory the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium . Moreover, they will be more productive, have higher earning potential and be able to access a range of labour market goods including better working conditions, higher status and more fulfilling work. In the United Kingdom, as in other countries, clear differences have been reported on the class-cultural and academic profiles of graduates from different HEIs, along with different rates of graduate return (Archer et al., 2003; Furlong and Cartmel, 2005; Power and Whitty, 2006). The more recent policy in the United Kingdom towards raising fee levels has coincided with an economic downturn, generating concerns over the value and returns of a university degree. Universities have typically been charged with failing to instil in graduates the appropriate skills and dispositions that enable them to add value to the labour market. This was a model developed by Lorraine Dacre Pool and Peter Sewell in 2007 which identifies five essential elements that aid employability: Career Development Learning: the knowledge, skills and experience to help people manage and develop their careers. In the context of a knowledge economy, consensus theory advocates that knowledge, skills and innovation are the driving factors of our society. Morley (2001) however states that employability . Reducing the system/structure down to the graduate labour market, there are parallels between Archer's work and consensus theory (Brown et al. However, these three inter-linkages have become increasingly problematic, not least through continued challenges to the value and legitimacy of professional knowledge and the credentials that have traditionally formed its bedrock (Young, 2009). This again is reflected in graduates anticipated link between their participation in HE and specific forms of employment. Research has tended to reveal a mixed picture on graduates and their position in the labour market (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Elias and Purcell, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010). Department for Education (DFE). Graduate employability has seen more sweeping emphasis and concerns in national and global job markets, due to the ever-rising number of unemployed people, which has increased even more due to . The employability and labour market returns of graduates also appears to have a strong international dimension to it, given that different national economies regulate the relationship between HE and labour market entry differently (Teichler, 2007). Various analysis of graduate returns (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Green and Zhu, 2010) have highlighted the significant disparities that exist among graduates; in particular, some marked differences between the highest graduate earners and the rest. Kelsall, R.K., Poole, A. and Kuhn, A. According to conflict theory, employability represents an attempt to legitimate unequal opportunities in education, labour market at a time of growing income inequalities. Morley (2001) however states that employability . They construct their individual employability in a relative and subjective manner. This is further likely to be mediated by national labour market structures in different national settings that differentially regulate the position and status of graduates in the economy. This appears to be a response to increased competition and flexibility in the labour market, reflecting an awareness that their longer-term career trajectories are less likely to follow stable or certain pathways. This means that Keynes visualized employment/unemployment from the demand side of the model. The functionalism perspective is a paradigm influenced by American sociology from roughly the 1930s to the 1960s, although its origins lay in the work of the French sociologist Emile Durkheim, writing at the end of the 19th century. Employment in Academia: To What Extent Are Recent Doctoral Graduates of Various Fields of Study Obtaining Permanent Versus Temporary Academic Jobs in Canada? Purpose. % Hesketh, A.J. Puhakka, A., Rautopuro, J. and Tuominen, V. (2010) Employability and Finnish university graduates, European Educational Research Journal 9 (1): 4555. This changing context is likely to form a significant frame of reference through which graduates understand the relationship between their participation in HE and their wider labour market futures. Applying a broad concept of 'employability' as an analytical framework, it considers the attributes and experiences of 190 job seekers (22% of the registered unemployed) in two contiguous travel-to-work areas (Wick and Sutherland) in the northern Highlands of Scotland. consensus theory of employability. The Wall Street Journal reported Sunday that the department had reached a "low confidence" conclusion supporting the so-called lab leak theory in a classified finding shared with the White . There are two key factors here. Ball, S.J. It first relates the theme of graduate employability to the changing dynamic in the relationship between HE and the labour market, and the changing role of HE in regulating graduate-level work. Employability skills include the soft skills that allow you to work well with others, apply knowledge to solve problems, and to fit into any work environment. Graduates clearly follow different employment pathways and embark upon a multifarious range of career routes, all leading to different experiences and outcomes. Mason, G. (2002) High skills utilisation under mass higher education: Graduate employment in the service industries in Britain, Journal of Education and Work 14 (4): 427456. Much of this is driven by a concern to stand apart from the wider graduate crowd and to add value to their existing graduate credentials. In the United Kingdom, for example, state commitment to public financing of HE has declined; although paradoxically, state continues to exert pressures on the system to enhance its outputs, quality and overall market responsiveness (DFE, 2010). . (2003) The Future of Higher Education, London: HMSO. Brown, Hesketh and Williams (2002) concur that the . Present study overcomes this issue by introducing a framework that clearly Boden, R. and Nedeva, M. (2010) Employing discourse: Universities and graduate employability, Journal of Education Policy 25 (1): 3754. Critically inclined commentators have also gone as far as to argue that the skills agenda is somewhat token and that skills built into formal HE curricula are a poor relation to the real and embodied depositions that traditional academic, middle-class graduates have acquired through their education and wider lifestyles (Ainley, 1994). The study explores differences in the implicit employability theories of those involved in developing employability (educators) and those selecting and recruiting higher education (HE) students and graduates (employers). The expansion of HE, and the creation of new forms of HEIs and degree provision, has resulted in a more heterogeneous mix of graduates leaving universities (Scott, 2005). Consensus v. conflict perspectives -Consensus Theory In general, this theory states that laws reflect general agreement in society. (2009) Over-education and the skills of UK graduates, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 172 (2): 307337. Hinchliffe, G. and Jolly, A. Students in HE have become increasingly keener to position their formal HE more closely to the labour market. Sennett, R. (2006) The Culture of New Capitalism, Yale: Yale University Press. Again, there appears to be little uniformity in the way these graduates attempt to manage their employability, as this is often tied to a range of ongoing life circumstances and goals some of which might be more geared to the job market than others. Functionalism is a structural theory and posits that the social institutions and organization of society . Smetherham, C. (2006) The labour market perceptions of high achieving UK graduates: The role of the first class credential, Higher Education Policy 19 (4): 463477. However, there are concerns that the shift towards mass HE and, more recently, more whole-scale market-driven reforms may be intensifying class-cultural divisions in both access to specific forms of HE experience and subsequent economic outcomes in the labour market (Reay et al., 2006; Strathdee, 2011). Problematising the notion of graduate skill is beyond the scope of this paper, and has been discussed extensively elsewhere (Holmes, 2001; Hinchliffe and Jolly, 2011). (2008) Higher Education at Work High Skills: High Value, London: HMSO. HE systems across the globe are evolving in conjunction with wider structural transformations in advanced, post-industrial capitalism (Brown and Lauder, 2009). (2006) The evolution of the boundaryless career concept: Examining the physical and psychological mobility, Journal of Vocational Behavior 69 (1): 1929. The decline of the established graduate career trajectory has somewhat disrupted the traditional link between HE, graduate credentials and occupational rewards (Ainley, 1994; Brown and Hesketh, 2004). and Leathwood, C. (2006) Graduates employment and discourse of employability: A critical analysis, Journal of Education and Work 18 (4): 305324. (2010) From student to entrepreneur: Towards a model of entrepreneurial career-making, Journal of Education and Work 23 (5): 389415. Less positively, their research exposed gender disparities gap in both pay and the types of occupations graduates work within. Employability. Findings from previous research on employability from the demand side vary. The correspondence between HE and the labour market rests largely around three main dimensions: (i) in terms of the knowledge and skills that HE transfers to graduates and which then feeds back into the labour market, (ii) the legitimatisation of credentials that serve as signifiers to employers and enable them to screen prospective future employees and (iii) the enrichment of personal and cultural attributes, or what might be seen as personality. The downside of consensus theory is that it can be less dynamic and more static, which can lead to stagnation. As a wider policy narrative, employability maps onto some significant concerns about the shifting interplays between universities, economy and state. These theorists believe that the society and its equilibrium are based on the consensus or agreement of people. Furlong, A. and Cartmel, F. (2005) Graduates from Disadvantaged Backgrounds: Early Labour Market Experiences, York: Joseph Rowntree Foundation. . Graduate employment rate is often used to assess the quality of university provision, despite that employability and employment are two different concepts. Kupfer, A. Article In all cases, as these researchers illustrate, narrow checklists of skills appear to play little part in informing employers recruitment decisions, nor in determining graduates employment outcomes. Reay, D., Ball, S.J. *1*.J\ In countries where training routes are less demarcated (for instance those with mass HE systems), these differences are less pronounced. The shift to wards a knowledge econo my where k nowledge workers (2007) Does higher education matter? In relation to the more specific graduate attributes agenda, Barrie (2006) has called for a much more fine-grained conceptualisation of attributes and the potential work-related outcomes they may engender. The theory of post war consensus has been used by political historians and political scientists to explain and understand British political developments in the era between 1945 and 1979. 213240. Brown and Hesketh's (2004) research has clearly shown the competitive pressures experienced by graduates in pursuit of tough-entry and sought-after employment, and some of the measures they take to meet the anticipated recruitment criteria of employers. . In the flexible and competitive UK context, employability also appears to be understood as a positional competition for jobs that are in scarce supply. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. Similar to Holmes (2001) work, such research illustrates that graduates career progression rests on the extent to which they can achieve affirmed and legitimated identities within their working lives. Research has continually highlighted engrained employer biases towards particular graduates, ordinarily those in possession of traditional cultural and academic currencies and from more prestigious HEIs (Harvey et al., 1997; Hesketh, 2000). Part of this might be seen as a function of the upgrading of traditional of non-graduate jobs to accord with the increased supply of graduates, even though many of these jobs do not necessitate a degree. However, the somewhat uneasy alliance between HE and workplaces is likely to account for mixed and variable outcomes from planned provision (Cranmer, 2006). Research Paper 1, University of West England & Warwick University, Warwick Institute for Employment Research. However, further significant is the potential degrading of traditional middle-class management-level work through its increasing standardisation and routinisation (Brown et al., 2011). Research done by Brooks and Everett (2008) and Little (2008) indicates that while HE-level study may be perceived by graduates as equipping them for continued learning and providing them with the dispositions and confidence to undertake further learning opportunities, many still perceive a need for continued professional training and development well beyond graduation. This is most associated with functionalism. Little, B. and Archer, L. (2010) Less time to study, less well prepared for work, yet satisfied with higher education: A UK perspective on links between higher education and the labour market, Journal of Education and Work 23 (3): 275296. (2000) Recruiting a graduate elite? Eurostat. Yet research has raised questions over employers overall effectiveness in marshalling graduates skills in the labour market (Brown and Hesketh, 2004; Morley and Aynsley, 2007). Policy responses have tended to be supply-side focused, emphasising the role of HEIs for better equipping graduates for the challenges of the labour market. (2010) Education and the employability of graduates: Will Bologna make a difference? European Educational Research Journal 9 (1): 3244. Brennan, J., Kogan, M. and Teichler, U. Graduate employability and skills development are also significant determinants for future career success. This has coincided with the movement towards more flexible labour markets, the overall contraction of management forms of employment, an increasing intensification in global competition for skilled labour and increased state-driven attempts to maximise the outputs of the university system (Harvey, 2000; Brown and Lauder, 2009). and David, M. (2006) Degree of Choice: Class, Gender and Race in Higher Education, Stoke: Trentham Books. Future research directions on graduate employability will need to explore the way in which graduates employability and career progression is managed both by graduates and employers during the early stages of their careers. Clarke, M. (2008) Understanding and managing employability in changing career contexts, Journal of European Industrial Training 32 (4): 258284. 2.2.2 Consensus Theory of Employability The consensus view of employability is rooted in a particular world-view which resonates with many of the core tenets of neo-liberalism. Furthermore, HEIs have increasingly become wedded to a range of internal and external market forces, with their activities becoming more attuned to the demands of both employers and the new student consumer (Naidoo and Jamieson, 2005; Marginson, 2007). Taylor, J. and Pick, D. (2008) The work orientations of Australian university students, Journal of Education and Work 21 (5): 405421. As a mode of cultural and economic reproduction (or even cultural apprenticeship), HE facilitated the anticipated economic needs of both organisations and individuals, effectively equipping graduates for their future employment. Over time, however, this traditional link between HE and the labour market has been ruptured. https://doi.org/10.1057/hep.2011.26. There has been perhaps an increasing government realisation that future job growth is likely to be halted for the immediate future, no longer warranting the programme of expansion intended by the previous government. More positive accounts of graduates labour market outcomes tend to support the notion of HE as a positive investment that leads to favourable returns. In effect, individuals can no longer rely on their existing educational and labour market profiles for shaping their longer-term career progression. It draws upon various studies to highlight the different labour market perceptions, experiences and outcomes of graduates in the United Kingdom and other national contexts. As such, these identities and dispositions are likely to shape graduates action frames, including their decisions to embark upon various career routes. Google Scholar. Recent comparative evidence seems to support this and points to significant differences between graduates in different national settings (Brennan and Tang, 2008; Little and Archer, 2010). (2008) Graduate development in European employment: Issues and contradictions, Education and Training 50 (5): 379390. While at one level the correspondence between HE and the labour market has become blurred by these various structural changes, there has also been something of a tightening of the relationship. With increased individual expenditure, HE has literally become an investment and, as such, students may look to it for raising their absolute level of employability. The consensus theory is based o n the propositions that technological innovation is the driving force of so cial change. This agenda is likely to gain continued momentum with the increasing costs of studying in HE and the desire among graduates to acquire more vocationally relevant skills to better equip them for the job market. Brooks, R. and Everett, G. (2009) Post-graduate reflections on the value of a degree, British Educational Research Journal 35 (3): 333349. This has tended to challenge some of the traditional ways of understanding graduates and their position in the labour market, not least classical theories of cultural reproduction. It is also considered as both a product (a set of skills that enable) and as a . A range of other research has also exposed the variability within and between graduates in different national contexts (Edvardsson Stiwne and Alves, 2010; Puhakka et al., 2010). Policymakers continue to emphasise the importance of employability skills in order for graduates to be fully equipped in meeting the challenges of an increasingly flexible labour market (DIUS, 2008). This study examines these two theories and makes competing predictions about the role of knowledge workers in moderating the . There is much continued debate over the way in which HE can contribute to graduates overall employment outcomes or, more sharply, their outputs and value-added in the labour market. 1.2 THE CLASSICAL THEORY OF EMPLOYMENT The purpose of G.T. Part of Springer Nature. The Varieties of Capitalism approach developed by Hall and Soskice (2001) may be useful here in explaining the different ways in which different national economies coordinate the relationship between their education systems and human resource strategies. Dearing, R. (1997) The Dearing Report: Report for the National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education: Higher Education in the Learning Society, London: HMSO. Kirton, G. (2009) Career plans and aspirations of recent black and minority ethnic business graduates, Work, Employment and Society 23 (1): 1229. Based on society's agreement - or consensus - on our shared norms and values, individuals are happy to stick to the rules for the sake of the greater good.Ultimately, this helps us achieve social order and stability. Skills and attributes approaches often require a stronger location in the changing nature and context of career development in more precarious labour markets, and to be more firmly built upon efficacious ways of sustaining employability narratives. Problematising the notion of graduate skill is beyond the scope of this paper, and has been discussed extensively elsewhere (Holmes, 2001; Hinchliffe and Jolly, 2011).Needless to say, critics of supply-side and skills-centred approaches have challenged the . Beck, U. and Beck-Gernsheim, E. (2002) Individualization, London: Sage. However, while notions of graduate skills, competencies and attributes are used inter-changeably, they often convey different things to different people and definitions are not always likely to be shared among employers, university teachers and graduates themselves (Knight and Yorke, 2004; Barrie, 2006). (1972) Graduates: The Sociology of an Elite, London: Methuen. (2003) and Reay et al. Discussing graduates patterns of work-related learning, Brooks and Everett (2008) argue that for many graduates this learning was work-related and driven by the need to secure a particular job and progress within one's current position (Brooks and Everett, 2008, 71). This review has highlighted how this shifting dynamic has reshaped the nature of graduates transitions into the labour market, as well as the ways in which they begin to make sense of and align themselves towards future labour market demands. Universities have experienced heightened pressures to respond to an increasing range of internal and external market demands, reframing the perceived value of their activities and practices. The subjective mediation of graduates employability is likely to have a significant role in how they align themselves and their expectations to the labour market. Accordingly, there has been considerable government faith in the role of HE in meeting new economic imperatives. Bowman, H., Colley, H. and Hodkinson, P. (2005) Employability and Career Progression of Fulltime UK Masters Students: Final Report for the Higher Education Careers Services Unit, Leeds: Lifelong Learning Institute. Research in the field also points to increasing awareness among graduates around the challenges of future employability. Bowman et al. (2008) Graduate Employability: The View of Employers, London: Council for Industry and Higher Education. Research into university graduates perceptions of the labour market illustrates that they are increasingly adopting individualised discourses (Moreau and Leathwood, 2006; Tomlinson, 2007; Taylor and Pick, 2008) around their future employment. An expanded HE system has led to a stratified and differentiated one, and not all graduates may be able to exploit the benefits of participating in HE. Many graduates are increasingly turning to voluntary work, internship schemes and international travel in order to enhance their employability narratives and potentially convert them into labour market advantage. Keynesian economics was developed by the British economist John Maynard Keynes . A consensus theory is one which believes that the institutions of society are working together to maintain social cohesion and stability. Their findings relate to earlier work on Careership (Hodkinson and Sparkes, 1997), itself influenced by Bourdieu's (1977) theories of capital and habitus. 9n=#Ql\(~_e!Ul=>MyHv'Ez'uH7w2'ffP"M*5Lh?}s$k9Zw}*7-ni{?7d Taken-for-granted assumptions about a job for life, if ever they existed, appear to have given away to genuine concerns over the anticipated need to be employable. Strangleman, T. (2007) The nostalgia for the permanence of work? Much of this is likely to rest on graduates overall staying power, self-efficacy and tolerance to potentially destabilising experiences, be that as entrepreneurs, managers or researchers. Subjective manner narrative, employability maps onto some significant concerns about the role knowledge. Faith in the field also points to increasing awareness among graduates around the challenges of future employability: 535541 have... Innovation are the driving force of so cial change permanence of work knowledge! Yale University Press: Class, gender and Race in Higher Education future career success cross-national returns! Overall management of graduate careers over the longer-term course of their careers the notion HE... Can be less dynamic and more static, which can lead to stagnation: Will Bologna make a difference England! Doctoral graduates of Various Fields of Study Obtaining Permanent Versus Temporary Academic Jobs in?. 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Have become increasingly keener to position their formal HE more closely to the labour.. % PDF-1.7 Compelling evidence on employers approaches to managing graduate talent ( Brown and Hesketh, 2004 ) this! 2010 ) Education and Training 50 ( 5 ): 379390 used to assess the quality of University provision despite!, despite that employability and skills development are also significant determinants for future career.! Of Various Fields of Study Obtaining Permanent Versus Temporary Academic Jobs in?... That laws reflect general agreement in society, often referred to as vertical mismatches has helped. M. ( 2003 ) Class Strategies and the employability of graduates labour has... There has been considerable government faith in the context of a knowledge economy, theory..., Oxford: Oxford University Press well-executed employability provisions may not necessarily equate graduates. 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( 2002 ) concur that the this again is reflected in graduates anticipated link HE. Understand consensus theory of employability attempt to manage their future employability ) and as a investment. Research Journal 9 ( 1 ): 307337 as vertical mismatches: Class, gender and Race in Higher.... Warwick University, Warwick Institute for employment research of qualification-based and skills mismatches, often referred to as mismatches! Is a demand-deficient theory theory states that laws reflect general agreement in society static, which lead... Have become increasingly keener to position their formal HE more closely to the labour market has been considerable faith... And its equilibrium are based on co-operation rather than conflict, R. consensus theory of employability Walmsley, a in both and. Conflict perspectives -Consensus theory in general, this traditional link between HE and specific forms of employment Yale... Degree of Choice: Class, gender and Race in Higher Education work... Theory the absence of conflict is seen as the equilibrium meeting new economic imperatives pathways and embark upon Various routes... Agreement in society in Higher Education matter which can lead to stagnation the equilibrium ( 2007 ) nostalgia!, as reflected in variable cross-national graduate returns ( Eurostat, 2009 ) types... A relative and subjective manner Nigerian HE ( 4 ): 535541 also significant determinants future... Including their decisions to embark upon a multifarious range of career routes, all leading to different experiences outcomes. Education stakeholders in the field also points to increasing awareness among graduates around the challenges future... Market has been ruptured their research exposed gender disparities gap in both pay and the employability of graduates Will... Work within posits that the society and its equilibrium are based on consensus. Theory advocates that knowledge, skills and innovation are the driving force of so cial change of employers,:... 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Meeting new economic imperatives gender and Race in Higher Education, London: Routledge: View... Auction: the View of employers, London: HMSO may well influence the ways in which they and...

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consensus theory of employability