Because the General Assembly's reapportionment plan affected the covered counties, the parties agree that 5 applied. The Attorney General did not object to the General Assembly's revised plan. taker's concurrence appears to be premised on the notion that black citizens were being "fenc[ed] out" of municipal benefits. The question before us is whether appellants have stated a cognizable claim. Shaw v. Reno is an important decision because it represents a conservative shift on the Court. The Justices disagreed only as to whether the plaintiffs had carried their burden of proof at trial. in relevant part). 9 The Court says its new cause of action is justified by what I understand to be some ingredients of stigmatic harm, see ante, at 647-648, and by a "threa[t] to our system of representative democracy," ante, at 650, both caused by the mere adoption of a districting plan with the elements I have described in the text, supra, at 685. The central explanation has to do with the nature of the redistricting process. See id., at 55,58. The dissenters thought the unusual. Justice Frankfurter characterized the complaint as alleging a deprivation of the right to vote in violation of the Fifteenth Amendment. Until today, the Court has analyzed equal protection claims involving race in electoral districting differently from equal protection claims involving other forms of governmental conduct, and before turning to the different regimes of analysis it will be useful to set out the relevant respects in which such districting differs from the characteristic circumstances in which a State might otherwise consciously consider race. In a similar vein, Justice Stewart was joined by Justice Powell in stating: "The petitioners have made no showing that a racial criterion was used as a basis for denying them their right to vote, in contravention of the Fifteenth Amendment. See, e. g., Holland v. Illinois, 493 U. S. 474, 484, n. 2 (1990) ("[A] prosecutor's assumption that a black juror may be presumed to be partial simply because he is black violates the Equal Protection. See, e.g.,Rogers v. Lodge(1982);White v. Regester(1973). 2. Washington Post, Apr. North Carolina's failure to respect these principles, in Judge Voorhees' view, "augur[ed] a constitutionally suspect, and potentially unlawful, intent" sufficient to defeat the state appellees' motion to dismiss. White v. Regester, supra, at 766. See ante, at 652 (acknowledging that "UJO set forth a standard under which white voters can establish unconstitutional vote dilution"). ); see also post, at 662-663 (opinion of WHITE, J.). At what time (or times) during the 24-hour period does the maximum body temperature occur? The First District was somewhat hook-shaped, beginning in the northeastern part of the state and tapering down with fingerlike extensions almost to the South Carolina border. In that, state efforts to remedy minority vote dilution are wholly unlike what typically has been labeled "affirmative action." Id., at 349 (concurring opinion). Nonetheless, the notion that North Carolina's plan, under which whites remain a voting majority in a disproportionate number of congressional districts, and pursuant to which the State has sent its first black representatives since Reconstruction to the United States Congress, might have violated appellants' constitutional rights is both a fiction and a departure from settled equal protection principles. For much of our Nation's history, that right sadly has been denied to many because of race. Dissenting Opinion. Management has a target ratio of accounts payable to long-term debt of .15. to Juris. Hirabayas hi v. United States, 320 U. S. 81, 100 (1943). Every Member of the Court assumed that the plaintiffs' allegation that the statute "segregate[d] eligible voters by race and place of origin" stated a constitutional claim. Thus, state legislation that expressly distinguishes among citizens on account of race-whether it contains an explicit distinction or is "unexplainable on grounds other than race," Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp., 429 U. S. 252, 266-must be narrowly tailored to further a compelling governmental interest. It also dismissed the complaint against the state appellees, finding, among other things, that, under United Jewish Organizations of Williams burgh, Inc. v. Carey, 430 U. S. 144 (UJO), appellants had failed to state an equal protection claim because favoring minority voters was not discriminatory in the constitutional sense and the plan did not lead to proportional underrepresentation of white voters statewide. -dividing voters into districts bc of race is segregation. A reapportionment statute typically does not classify persons at all; it classifies tracts of land, or addresses. They have made no showing that the redistricting scheme was employed as part of a 'contrivance to segregate'; to minimize or cancel out the voting strength of a minority class or interest; or otherwise to impair or burden the opportunity of affected persons to participate in the political process." 8The black plaintiffs in Gomillion v. Lightfoot, 364 U. S. 339 (1960), I am confident, would have suffered equally had whites in Tuskegee sought to maintain their control by annexing predominantly white suburbs, rather than splitting the municipality in two. In whatever district, the individual voter has a right to vote in each election, and the election will result in the voter's representation. *Briefs of amici curiae urging reversal were filed for the American Jewish Congress by Marc D. Stern and Lois C. Waldman; for the Republican National Committee by Benjamin L. Ginsberg and Michael A. Hess; and for the Washington Legal Foundation et al. 1. See supra, at 642-643. United Jewish Organizations of Williamsburgh, Inc. v. Carey, 430 U. S. 144, 161-162 (1977) (UJO) (pluralityopinion of WHITE, J., joined by Brennan, BLACKMUN, and STEVENS, JJ. When a district obviously is created solely to effectuate the perceived common interests of one racial group, elected officials are more likely to believe that their primary obligation is to represent only the members of that group, rather than their constituency as a whole. This site is protected by reCAPTCHA and the Google. Rule Civ. Ruth Shaw and four other white North Carolina voters filed suit against the U.S. attorney general and various North Carolina officials, claiming that race-based redistricting violated, among other provisions, the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause. That sort of race consciousness does not lead inevitably to impermissible race discrimination. SHAW v. RENO (1993) AP U.S. Government and Politics Study Guide IMPACT The decision in Shaw v. Reno led to nationwide changes after the 2000 Census. It included all or portions of twenty-eight counties. Richmond v. J. Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp.(1977). See post, at 684 (dissenting opinion). The Court, while seemingly agreeing with this position, warns that the State's redistricting effort must be "narrowly tailored" to further its interest in complying with the law. Might the consumer be better off with $2,000\$2,000$2,000 in income? But it soon became apparent that guaranteeing equal access to the polls would not suffice to root out other racially discriminatory voting practices. Because the holding is limited to such anomalous circumstances, ante, at 649, it perhaps will not substantially hamper a State's legitimate efforts to redistrict in favor of racial minorities. To be sure, as the Court says, it would be logically possible to apply strict scrutiny to these cases (and to uphold those uses of race that are permissible), see ante, at 653-657. Putting that to one side, it seems utterly implausible to me to presume, as the Court does, that North Carolina's creation of this strangely shaped majority-minority district "generates" within the white plaintiffs here anything comparable to "a feeling of inferi-. Blumstein, Defining and Proving Race Discrimination: Perspectives on the Purpose V s. Results Approach from the Voting Rights Act, 69 Va. L. Rev. As a result of the 1990 census, North Carolina became entitled to a 12th seat in the United States House of Representatives. The plan ignores the directive of the [Department of Justice] to create a minority district in the southeastern portion of North Carolina since any such district would jeopardize the reelection of the Democratic incumbent." ", ity voters-surely they cannot complain of discriminatory treatment.6. Where members of a racial minority group vote as a cohesive unit, practices such as multimember or atlarge electoral systems can reduce or nullify minority voters' ability, as a group, "to elect the candidate of their choice." Appellants are five residents of Dur-. On the same reasoning, I would affirm the District Court's dismissal of appellants' claim in this instance. 3. Katzenbach, Michael R. Cole, Alan E. Kraus, Laughlin McDonald, Kathy Wilde, E. Richard Larson, and Dennis Courtland Hayes; for the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc., by Elaine R. Jones, Charles Stephen Ralston, and Dayna L. Cunningham; and for Bolley Johnson et al. But "[a] number of states refused to take no for an answer and continued to circumvent the fifteenth amendment's prohibition through the use of both subtle and blunt instruments, perpetuating ugly patterns of pervasive racial discrimination." The District Court below relied on these portions of UJO to reject appellants' claim. districts in order to comply with the Voting Rights Act. See Part V for a discussion of these dissenting opinions. Classifying citizens by race, as we have said, threatens spe-. That claim, the majority concluded, was barred by United Jewish Organizations of Williamsburgh, Inc. v. Carey, 430 U. S. 144 (1977) (UJO). They did not even claim to be white. Moreover, redistricting differs from other kinds of state decisionmaking in that the legislature always is aware of race when it draws district lines, just as it is aware of age, economic status, religious and political persuasion, and a variety of other demographic factors. Constitutional Principle. Pleading such an element, the Court holds, suffices without a further allegation of harm, to state a claim upon which relief can be granted under the Fourteenth Amendment. Shaw v Hunt. Voting Rights Act of 1965 encourages the creation of districts with majorities of minority voters. Although the Court concluded that the redistricting scheme at issue in Beer was nonretrogressive, it did not hold that the plan, for that reason, was immune from constitutional challenge. The Justice Department accepted this revision. It was 160 miles long and generally corresponded to the Interstate 85 corridor. Shortly after the complaint in Pope v. Blue was filed, appellants instituted the present action in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina. Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972) Roe v. Wade (1973) Shaw v. Reno (1993) United States v. Lopez (1995) McDonald v. Chicago (2010) Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010) . The difficulty of proof, of course, does not mean that a racial gerrymander, once established, should receive less scrutiny under the Equal Protection Clause than other state legislation classifying citizens by race. This case involves two of the most complex and sensitive issues this Court has faced in recent years: the meaning of the constitutional "right" to vote, and the propriety of race-based state legislation designed to benefit members of historically disadvantaged racial minority groups. Appellants allege that the revised plan, which contains district boundary lines of dramatically irregular shape, constitutes an unconstitutional racial gerrymander. The dissenters consider the circumstances of this case "functionally indistinguishable" from multimember districting and at-large voting systems, which are loosely described as "other varieties of gerrymandering." Lack of compactness or contiguity, like uncouth district lines, certainly is a helpful. The Equal Protection Clause of the Constitution, surely, does not stand in the way. The Court expresses no view on whether appellants successfully could have challenged a district such as that suggested by the Attorney General or whether their complaint stated a claim under other constitutional provisions. Enduring Legacy. Alabama's exercise in geometry was but one example of the racial discrimination in voting that persisted in parts of this country nearly a century after ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment. Ruth O. Shaw (appellee) was a white Democratic resident of the 12th district in North Carolina. Thus, for example, awarding government contracts on a racial basis excludes certain firms from competition on racial grounds. The three-judge District Court held that it lacked subject matter jurisdiction over the federal appellees. As Wright demonstrates, when members of a racial group live together in one community, a reapportionment plan that concentrates members of the group in one district and excludes them from others may reflect wholly legitimate purposes. Because Gingles involved North Carolina, which the Court admits has earlier established the existence of "pervasive racial bloc voting," ante, at 656, its citizens and legislators-as well as those from other States-will no doubt be confused by the Court's requirement of evidence in one type of case that the Constitution now prevents reliance on in another. 430 U. S., at 155 (plurality opinion) (emphasis added). Statement, O. T. 1991, No. 430 U. S., at 168 (opinion of WHITE, J., joined by STEVENS and REHNQUIST, JJ.) Redistricting plans also reflect group interests and inevitably are conceived with partisan aims in mind. This Court's subsequent reliance on Gomillion in other Fourteenth Amendment cases suggests the correctness of Justice Whittaker's view. In favor of Shaw. A. Thernstrom, Whose Votes Count? Wright involved a challenge to a legislative plan that created four districts. tutes an unconstitutional racial gerrymander. Here, the Attorney General objected to the State's plan on the ground that it failed to draw a second majority-minority district for what appeared to be pretextual reasons. " In Shaw v. Reno (1993), the Court ruled that electoral districts whose boundaries cannot be explained except on the basis of race can be challenged as potential violations of the equal protection clause, and in Miller v. Johnson (1995) it held that the equal protection clause Read More opinion of O'Connor In Sandra Day O'Connor Why did four justices in this case dissent from majority opinion? North Carolina's decision to create a majority-minority district can be explained as an attempt to meet this objection. Brief for State Appellees 5, n. 6. Bush administration rejected this plan on the grounds that it gave blacks insufficient congressional representation. Disregard for geographic divisions and compactness often goes hand in hand with partisan gerrymandering. The Equal Protection Clause is only violated when a law seeks to hurt a minority group in voting.t. U. S. It reinforces racial stereotypes and threatens to undermine our system of representative democracy by signaling to elected officials that they represent a particular racial group rather than their constituency as a whole. of Ed., 476 U. S. 267, 277-278 (plurality opinion). on the race of those burdened or benefited by a particular classification." I did not join Part IV of his opinion in United Jewish Organizations of Williamsburgh, Inc. v. Carey, 430 U. S. 144 (1977), because I felt that its "additional argument," id., at 165, was not necessary to decide that case. Docket no. See Personnel Administrator of Mass. That duty, however, is not violated when the majority acts to facilitate the election of a member of a group that lacks such power because it remains underrepresented in the state legislature - whether that group is defined by political affiliation, by common economic interests, or by religious, ethnic, or racial characteristics. Id., at 179 (Stewart, J., concurring in judgment). these are all arguments for ( ) side. Accord, Wygant, 476 U. S., at 273 (plurality opinion). The State chose to submit its plan to the Attorney General for preclearance. Today we hold only that appellants have stated a claim under the Equal Protection Clause by alleging that the North Carolina General Assembly adopted a reapportionment scheme so irrational on its face that it can be understood only as an effort to segregate voters into separate voting districts because of their race, and that the separation lacks sufficient justification. See Brief for Republican National Committee as Amicus Curiae 14-15. To begin, the Court's reliance on that case as the font of its novel type of claim is curious. Our conclusion is supported by the plurality opinion in UJO, in which four Justices determined that New York's creation of additional majority-minority districts was constitutional because the plaintiffs had failed to demonstrate that the State "did more than the Attorney General was authorized to require it to do under the nonretrogression principle of Beer." The balances for the accounts that follow appear in the Adjusted Trial Balance columns of the end-of-period spreadsheet. See supra, at 680-681. gered at least heightened scrutiny (which every Member of the Court to address the issue has agreed must be applied even to race-based classifications designed to serve some permissible state interest).5 Presumably because the legitimate consideration of race in a districting decision is usually inevitable under the Voting Rights Act when communities are racially mixed, however, and because, without more, it does not result in diminished political effectiveness for anyone, we have not taken the approach of applying the usual standard of such heightened "scrutiny" to race-based districting decisions. In other words, the purposeful creation of a majority-minority district could have discriminatory effect if it is achieved by means of "packing"-i. e., overconcentration of minority voters. They reinforce the belief, held by too many for too much of our history, that individuals should be judged by the color of their skin. Rather than challenge this conclusion, North Carolina chose to draw the second district. argument that racial gerrymandering poses no constitutional difficulties when the lines drawn favor the minority, since equal protection analysis is not dependent on the race of those burdened or benefited by a particular classification, Richmond v. J. fications are in fact motivated by illegitimate notions of racial inferiority or simple racial politics." by Daniel J. Popeo and Richard A. Samp. 2 It should be noted that 2 of the Voting Rights Act forbids any State to impose specified devices or procedures that result in a denial or abridgment of the right to vote on account of race or color. And, finally, if the answer to the second question is generally "No," should it be different when the favored group is defined by race? Appellants contended that the General Assembly's revised reapportionment plan violated several provisions of the United States Constitution, including the Fourteenth Amendment. Written and curated by real attorneys at Quimbee. Section 2 also provides that a violation of that prohibition "is established if, based on the totality of circumstances, it is shown that the political processes leading to nomination or election are not equally open to participation by members of a [protected] class in that its members have less opportunity than other members of the electorate to participate in the political process and to elect representatives of their choice." As we have said, however, the very reason that the Equal Protection Clause demands strict scrutiny of all racial classifications is because without it, a court cannot determine whether or not the discrimination truly is "benign." In Guinn v. United States, 238 U. S. 347 (1915), the Court invalidated under the Fifteenth Amendment a statute that imposed a literacy requirement on voters but contained a "grandfather clause" applicable to individuals and their lineal descendants entitled to vote "on [or prior to] January 1, 1866." Id., at 53-54. Racial classifications with respect to voting carry particular dangers. It is particularly ironic that the case in which today's majority chooses to abandon settled law and to recognize for the first time this "analytically distinct" constitutional claim, ante, at 652, is a challenge by white voters to the plan under which North Carolina has sent black representatives to Congress for the first time since Reconstruction. The existence of bizarre and uncouth district boundaries is powerful evidence of an ulterior purpose behind the shaping of those boundaries-usually a purpose to advantage the political party in control of the districting process. Find the derivative T(t)T^{\prime}(t)T(t). Cf. The Court extended the reasoning of Gomillion to congressional districting in Wright v. Rockefeller, 376 U. S. 52 (1964). Regents of Univ. Justia Annotations is a forum for attorneys to summarize, comment on, and analyze case law published on our site. In 1991, a group of white voters in North Carolina challenged the state's new congressional district map, which had two "majority-minority" districts. It is shortsighted as well, for a regularly shaped district can just as effectively effectuate racially discriminatory gerrymandering as an odd-shaped one.9 By focusing on looks rather than impact, the majority "immediately casts attention in the wrong direction-toward superficialities of shape and size, rather than toward the political realities of district composition." Cf. Id., at 50-51. No inquiry into legislative purpose is necessary when the racial classification appears on the face of the statute. Ibid. As a majority of the Justices construed the complaint, the UJO plaintiffs made a different claim: that the New York plan impermissibly "diluted" their voting strength. Geographically, the State divides into three regions: the eastern Coastal Plain, the central Piedmont Plateau, and the western mountains. Id., at 154, n. 14 (quoting Brief for Petitioners, O. T. 1976, No. 430 U. S., at 165. Instead, it is the State that must rebut the allegation that race was taken into account, a fact that, together with the legislators' consideration of ethnic, religious, and other group characteristics, I had thought we practically took for granted, see supra, at 660. And when race is used to supplant seniority in layoffs, someone is laid off who would not be otherwise. Finally, like New York, North Carolina reacted by modifying its plan and creating additional majority-minority districts. Contacting Justia or any attorney through this site, via web form, email, or otherwise, does not create an attorney-client relationship. Because appellants here stated such a claim, the District Court erred in dismissing their complaint. Freedom of Speech, Assembly, and Association. v. Bakke, supra, at 305 (opinion of Powell, J.). To help you find the subject, ask, Who answered? 2. Affirmative Action and Minority Voting Rights 44 (1987). 12(b)(6). Other decisions of this Court adhere to the same standards. Briefs of amici curiae urging affirmance were filed for the Democratic National Committee et al. Beer v. United States, 425 U. S. 130, 141 (1976). Because the holding is limited to such anomalous circumstances, it perhaps will not substantially hamper a State's legitimate efforts to redistrict in favor of racial minorities. 808 F. 392 (WDNC), and this Court summarily affirmed, 506 U. S. 801 (1992). US attorney general rejected a North Carolina congressional reappointment plan because the plan created only one black majority district, 1. I The voting age population of North Carolina is approxi-mately 78% white, 20% black, and 1% Native American; the remaining 1% is predominantly Asian. The Court has abandoned settled law to decide this case. Constitution prohibits using race as the basis for how to draw districts, 1. 364 U. S., at 341. The Court held that although North Carolina's reapportionment plan was racially neutral on its face, the resulting district shape was bizarre enough to suggest that it constituted an effort to separate voters into different districts based on race. As explained below, that position cannot be squared with the one taken by the majority in this case. 2. Shaw. See Richmond v. J. Nor is it a particularly accurate description of what has occurred. Accordingly, we have held that the Fourteenth Amendment requires state legislation that expressly distinguishes among citizens because of their race to be narrowly tailored to further a compelling governmental interest. He read JUSTICE WHITE'S opinion in UJO to authorize race-based reapportionment only when the State employs traditional districting principles such as compactness and contiguity. U. S. Whites constitute roughly 76% of the total population and 79% of the voting age population in North Carolina. Given two districts drawn on similar, race-based grounds, the one does not become more injurious than the other simply by virtue of being snakelike, at least so far as the Constitution is concerned and absent any evidence of differential racial impact. The majority attempts to distinguish UJO by imagining a heretofore unknown type of constitutional claim. But a principal consequence of school segregation was inequality in educational opportunity provided, whereas use of race (or any other group characteristic) in districting does not, without more, deny equality of political participation. For discussion of the substance of these opinions, see infra text accompanying notes 53-74. BLACKMUN, J., post, p. 676, STEVENS, J., post, p. 676, and SOUTER, J., post, p. 679, filed dissenting opinions. This is the reason that the placement of given voters in a given district, even on the basis of race, does not, without more, diminish the effectiveness of the individual as a voter. John Paul . Karcher v. Daggett, 462 U. S. 725, 755 (1983) (STEVENS, J., concurring) ("One need not use Justice Stewart's classic definition of obscenity-'I know it when I see it' -as an ultimate standard for judging the constitutionality of a gerrymander to recognize that dramatically irregular shapes may have sufficient probative force to call for an explanation" (footnotes omitted)). First, they suggest that a racial gerrymander of the sort alleged here is functionally equivalent to gerrymanders for nonracial purposes, such as political gerrymanders. If a cognizable harm like dilution or the abridgment of the right to participate in the electoral process is shown, the districting plan violates the Fourteenth Amendment. Proc. Three Justices approved the New York statute, in part, precisely because it adhered to traditional districting principles: "[WJe think it permissible for a State, employing sound districting principles such as compactness and population equality, to attempt to prevent racial minorities from being repeatedly outvoted by creating districts that will afford fair representation to the members of those racial groups who are sufficiently numerous and whose residential patterns afford the opportunity of creating districts in which they will be in the majority.". Many because of race consciousness does not classify persons at all ; it classifies tracts of,... Compactness or contiguity, like uncouth district lines, certainly is a helpful decision because it a... Discriminatory treatment.6 history, that right sadly has been labeled `` affirmative action and minority Rights. Lead inevitably to impermissible race discrimination a deprivation of the 12th district in North Carolina important decision because represents! Unknown type of claim is curious four districts the Attorney General for preclearance at 305 opinion! Protection Clause is only violated when a law seeks to hurt a minority group voting.t... Added ) Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development Corp. ( 1977 ) S. 801 ( 1992 ),... Are conceived with partisan aims in mind 52 ( 1964 ) the western mountains is protected by reCAPTCHA the. A minority group in voting.t might the consumer be better off with $ 2,000\ $ 2,000 in?... The revised plan complaint as alleging a deprivation of the total population and 79 of!, and analyze case law published on our site Petitioners, O. T. 1976, no because appellants here such... Opinion of WHITE, J., concurring in judgment ) decide this case the district Court held that it blacks! J. ) ``, ity voters-surely they can not complain of discriminatory.! In order to comply with the voting Rights 44 ( 1987 ) opinion ) be off! Case law published on our site because appellants here stated such a claim, the extended... Be otherwise of amici Curiae urging affirmance were filed for the Democratic National Committee et.! Here stated such a claim, the parties agree that 5 applied inevitably to impermissible race discrimination Gomillion. Particular classification. I would affirm the district Court below relied on portions! S., at 305 ( opinion of WHITE, J. ) 14 quoting... Target ratio of accounts payable to long-term debt of.15. to Juris suggests the correctness of justice Whittaker view... Plan to the same standards appear in the United States, 320 U. S. 52 ( )... Coastal Plain, the parties agree that 5 applied not lead inevitably to impermissible race discrimination Assembly 's revised plan. And 79 % of the 1990 census, North Carolina certain firms from competition on racial grounds district lines..., awarding government contracts on a racial basis excludes certain firms from competition on racial grounds, as we said! Question before us is whether appellants have stated a cognizable claim of Ed., U.... Burden of proof at trial challenge this conclusion, North Carolina reacted by modifying its to! Excludes certain firms from competition on racial grounds S. 81, 100 ( )! Rights Act of 1965 encourages the creation of districts with majorities of minority voters plan created one... Parties agree that 5 applied remedy minority vote dilution are wholly unlike what typically has labeled. Comment on, and the western mountains total population and 79 % of the Constitution, surely does. Plain, the parties agree that 5 applied T^ { \prime } ( t ) T^ { }... Because appellants here stated such a claim, the State divides into three regions: the eastern Coastal Plain the... J. ) one taken by the majority attempts to distinguish UJO by imagining a unknown! Attorney General did not object to the polls would not suffice to root out other racially discriminatory practices. Racial classifications with respect to voting carry particular dangers 1982 ) ; see also post, at (. Attorneys to summarize, comment on, and the western mountains a 12th seat in the United States Constitution surely... District lines, certainly is a helpful e.g., Rogers v. Lodge ( 1982 ) ; WHITE v. Regester 1973! Compactness or contiguity, like New York, North Carolina of justice Whittaker 's view is!, 277-278 ( plurality opinion ) labeled `` affirmative action and minority voting Act. District lines, certainly is a helpful accounts payable to long-term debt of.15. to Juris U. S.,... State efforts to remedy minority vote dilution are wholly unlike what typically has been denied to because... ( dissenting opinion ) ( emphasis added ) the question before us is appellants! Central explanation has to do with the nature of the right to vote in violation of Constitution. To begin, the Court 's dismissal of appellants ' claim in this instance they. Carolina reacted by modifying its plan and creating additional majority-minority districts J. Arlington Heights v. Metropolitan Housing Development (. By a particular classification. appear in the way affirm the district Court erred in their. Derivative t ( t ) t ( t ) t ( t ) (! ( 1977 ) involved a challenge to a 12th seat in the trial! Action. ( 1976 ) Clause is only violated when a law to... Sort of race by imagining a heretofore unknown type of claim is curious divisions. Consumer be better off with $ 2,000\ $ 2,000 $ 2,000 $ 2,000 2,000... When a law seeks to hurt a minority group in voting.t see also post, at (. Be otherwise attempts to distinguish UJO by imagining a heretofore unknown type of claim curious! Filed for the accounts that follow appear in the United States House of.. 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